Noted philosopher Timothy Williamson uses ideas from contemporary psychology and data-driven science to identify defects in how many philosophers arrive at their theories, because they rely on common sense ways of thinking that are correct most but not all the time. When those ways of thinking are pushed too far, what Williamson refers to as overfitting can result in philosophical paradoxes. He shows how philosophers have over-complicated their theories in futile attempts to accommodate erroneous 'data' and he documents these problems in detail through case studies of contemporary philosophy. He also discusses what philosophers can do to avoid these problems. Williamson's important diagnosis and prescription will be of interest to a wide range of philosophers.

"The main aim of this book is to encourage philosophers to take a more sophisticated and scientific attitude to their handling of evidence, both in theory and in practice, by introducing two categories neglected in current metaphilosophy. The first category is that of heuristics. These are typically efficient ways of solving problems of some kind, quick and easy to use, and mostly but not always reliable. Those most probably central to philosophical methodology are more or less humanly universal general cognitive heuristics which we employ without conscious reflection. In many plausible cases, they can be shown to be implicitly inconsistent, and so cannot be perfectly valid, though for evolutionary reasons they are likely to be fairly reliable in normal cases. Such heuristics may well generate false but convincing data as applied to some actual or hypothetical. Arguably, the heuristics also generate philosophical paradoxes, just as heuristics embedded in our perceptual systems generate perceptual illusions. The second category is that of overfitting. This is a recognized pathology in science, when models are allowed to become very complicated to achieve a close fit with data, and further complications typically keep having to be made as new data comes in. When the data contains errors, such theorizing provides little insight. Scientists guard against overfitting by strongly preferring comparatively simple models. Philosophers should learn to do the same. This approach is applied to debates between coarse-grained (intensionalist) and fine-grained (hyperintensionalist) theories of metaphysics, ascriptions of propositional attitudes, and other topics, in favour of intensionalism"--

What does 'if' mean? Timothy Williamson presents a controversial new approach to understanding conditional thinking, which is central to human cognitive life. He argues that in using 'if' we rely on psychological heuristics, fast and frugal methods which can lead us to trust faulty data and prematurely reject simple theories.

Disagreement is one of the deepest and most pervasive topics in philosophy; arguably its very bedrock, and is an ever-increasing feature of politics, ethics, public policy, science and many other areas. Despite the omnipresence of disagreement, the topic itself has received relatively little sustained examination. This outstanding handbook examines the philosophy of disagreement and how it extends to debates in public policy and science. Comprising 41 chapters by an international team of highly distinguished contributors, the Handbook is divided into six clear parts: Philosophy of Disagreement Epistemology of Disagreement Disagreement in Science Moral Disagreement Political Disagreement Disagreement and Public Policy Within these sections key topics are examined, including skepticism, truth, pluralism, feminist philosophy, philosophy of religion, epistemology of peer disagreement, ethics, metaethics, political philosophy, rationality, intellectual virtues, relativism, realism, instrumentalism, and scientific method. Ideal for those studying and researching philosophy and especially epistemology, ethics and philosophy of science, The Routledge Handbook of Philosophy of Disagreement will also be of interest to those in related disciplines such as politics, social policy and law.

Methods and Skills for Philosophy introduces students to methodologies, strategies, heuristics and formal tools which are typically employed in contemporary analytic philosophy. This helpful resource gets the reader to engage with the analytical skills required to master postgraduate studies in philosophy. In conjunction with analysing texts, reflecting on arguments and trying to solve problems, the book will help instil in students the kind of understanding, knowledge and skills they need to succeed at the postgraduate level. More specifically, students will have a better grasp of how to pose a succinct research question and then critically pursue the proposed topic by engaging with relevant literature, reflecting on philosophical presuppositions, selecting suitable argumentative strategies and defending a preferred view against objections. Topics covered include: the nature and character of arguments conceptual analysis analytical truths logic and language models of explanation and reduction strategies and dialectics rational intuitions. Methods and Skills for Philosophy: An Advanced Guide provides a comprehensive and accessible introduction to philosophical methods. It is a must-read for advanced undergraduate or postgraduate students of philosophy, and also suitable for those studying postgraduate philosophy who have a background in other academic disciplines.

"For those new to philosophy, 'Tetralogue' is a marvellous way into the subject. For those who are old hands, it neatly poses serious questions about truth and falsity, relativism and dogma."--Dust jacket flap.