The aim of this book is to provide information about performing experi ments at low temperatures, as well as basic facts concerning the low tem perature properties of liquid and solid matter. To orient the reader, I begin with chapters on these low temperature properties. The major part of the book is then devoted to refrigeration techniques and to the physics on which they are based. Of equal importance, of course, are the definition and measurement of temperature; hence low temperature thermometry is extensively discussed in subsequent chapters. Finally, I describe a variety of design and construction techniques which have turned out to be useful over the years. The content of the book is based on the three-hour-per-week lecture course which I have given several times at the University of Bayreuth between 1983 and 1991. It should be particularly suited for advanced stu dents whose intended masters (diploma) or Ph.D. subject is experimental condensed matter physics at low temperatures. However, I believe that the book will also be of value to experienced scientists, since it describes sev eral very recent advances in experimental low temperature physics and technology, for example, new developments in nuclear refrigeration and thermometry.

In writing this monograph, the aim has been to consider the mechanical properties of the wide range of materials now available in such a way as to start with the fundamental nature of these properties and to follow the discussion through to the point at which the reader is able to comprehend the significance or otherwise of the large amounts of data now available in design manuals and other compilations. In short, it is hoped that this volume will be used as a companion to these data compilations and as an aid to their interpretation. In attempting to cover such a wide field, a large degree of selection has been necessary, as complete volumes have been written on topics which here have had to be covered in a few pages or less. It is inevitable that not everyone will agree with the choice made, especially if it is his own subject which has been discussed rather briefly, and the author accepts full res ponsibility for the selection made. The book is written at a level which should be easily followed by a university graduate in science or engineer ing, although, if his background has not included a course in materials science, some groundwork may be lacking.

This book addresses the growing interest in low temperature technologies. Since the subject of low temperature materials and mechanisms is multidisciplinary, the chapters reflect the broadest possible perspective of the field. Leading experts in the specific subject area address the various related science and engineering chemistry, material science, electrical engineering, mechanical engineering, metallurgy, and physics.

The minimum temperature in the natural universe is 2.7 K. Laboratory refrigerators can reach temperatures in the microkelvin range. Modern industrial refrigerators cool foods at 200 K, whereas space mission payloads must be capable of working at temperatures as low as 20 K. Superconducting magnets used for NMR work at 4.2 K. Hence the properties of materials must be accurately known also at cryogenic temperatures. This book provides a guide for engineers, physicists, chemists, technicians who wish to approach the field of low-temperature material properties. The focus is on the thermal properties and a large spectrum of experimental cases is reported. The book presents updated tables of low-temperature data on materials and a thorough bibliography supplements any further research. Key Features include: ° Detailed technical description of experiments ° Description of the newest cryogenic apparatus ° Offers data on cryogenic properties of the latest new materials ° Current reference review

This work was begun quite some time ago at the University of Oxford during the tenure of an Overseas Scholarship of the Royal Commission for the Exhibition of 1851 and was completed at Banga lore when the author was being supported by a maintenance allowance from the CSIR Pool for unemployed scientists. It is hoped that significant developments taking place as late as the beginning of 1965 have been incorporated. The initial impetus and inspiration for the work came from Dr. K. Mendelssohn. To him and to Drs. R. W. Hill and N. E. Phillips, who went through the whole of the text, the author is obliged in more ways than one. For permission to use figures and other materials, grateful thanks are tendered to the concerned workers and institutions. The author is not so sanguine as to imagine that all technical and literary flaws have been weeded out. If others come across them, they may be charitably brought to the author's notice as proof that physics has become too vast to be comprehended by a single onlooker. E. S. RAJA GoPAL Department of Physics Indian Institute of Science Bangalore 12, India November 1965 v Contents Introduction ................................................................. .

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