The goals and objectives of future lunar exploration are defined in terms of science, preparation for long-duration stays on the Moon, preparation for human exploration of Mars, exploring the possibility of economic uses of the Moon, and maintaining the health and performance of humans and machines on the Moon. These objectives can be met by carrying out a set of functional activities on the Moon such as scientific field investigations; sample collection and analysis; deployment of surface scientific instruments such asseismometers and telescopes; teleoperation of exploration and technology demonstration systems; intravehicular activity, maintenance and repair; and other activities. These are combined into a set of surface exploration mission options. Short-stay missions that principally address scientific and technology verification are defined for three different types of sites, and long-stay missions, which can build up infrastructure for longer duration stays, are defined for two sites, including a south polar site. Representative timelines for crew surface activities are presented.

Two official NASA internal documents provide unique details of plans developed by NASA during the Constellation program era for human and robotic lunar surface activities, including the possibility of lunar mining and in-situ resource utilization (ISRU). The first document is titled NASA Lunar Mining & Construction Activities and Plans. "One area NASA is developing that can significantly change how systems required for sustained human presence are designed and integrated, as well as potentially break our reliance on Earth supplied logistics, is In-Situ Resource Utilization (ISRU). ISRU, also known "living off the land", involves the extraction and processing of local resources into useful products. In particular, the ability to make propellants, life support consumables, fuel cell reagents, and radiation shielding can significantly reduce the cost, mass, and risk of sustained human activities beyond Earth. Also, the ability to modify the lunar landscape for safer landing, transfer of payloads from the lander an outpost, dust generation mitigation, and infrastructure placement and buildup are also extremely important for long-term lunar operations. While extra-terrestrial excavation, material handling and processing, and site preparation and construction may be new to NASA and other space agencies, there is extensive terrestrial hardware and commercial experience that can be leveraged. This paper will provide an overview of current NASA activities in lunar ISRU mining and construction and how terrestrial experience in these areas are important to achieving the goal of affordable and sustainable human exploration." The second document is titled Lunar Surface Reference Missions - A Description of Human and Robotic Surface Activities. " The organization of this document begins with a description of several major objectives of renewed exploration of the Moon: (1) Scientific exploration; (2) Determining the suitability of the Moon as the basis for astronomical and other observations; (3) Developing technology and conducting tests relevant to long-term human stays on the Moon; (4) Developing technology and conducting tests of technical and human systems relevant to the human exploration of Mars and beyond; (5) Testing technologies and conducting investigations that can lead to economically beneficial activities on the moon; and (6) Understanding the conditions under which crew health, safety and performance and effective facility operations can be extended for long-duration missions. For each of these areas, the rationale for the activities, their scope and scale, how they might be accomplished, and the functions required to conduct them, are provided. Many of the capabilities required to carry out the objectives are common between objectives, so they are presented and discussed in a section that describes major functional requirements, such as field investigations, mobility, sample analysis, teleoperations, and various crew functions. These are the functions that must be carried out on the lunar surface. Missions will be designed to allow some or all of these functions to be conducted to achieve specific mission objectives, which may differ from mission to mission. Finally, scenarios are provided for two classes of missions: (1) a short-stay time mission, similar to Apollo, in which 4 astronauts spend four days on the lunar surface; and (2) a longer stay time mission, with the capability to support 4 people for 30 days on the Moon. In the long stay time missions, it is possible to add infrastructure incrementally that builds toward even longer stay times for crews on subsequent visits. To provide a true test bed for human exploration of Mars, infrastructure suitable for stays of up to 18 months with crews of 6 or more people on the lunar surface could be required. Construction of these scenarios allows a visualization of potential missions.

The only work to date to collect data gathered during the American and Soviet missions in an accessible and complete reference of current scientific and technical information about the Moon.

Most medical equipment to the International Space Station (ISS) is manisfested as part of the U.S. or the Russian medical hardware systems. However, certain medical hardware is also available as part of the Human Research Facility. The HRF and the JSC Medical Operations Branch established a Memorandum of Agreement for joint use of certain medical hardware, including the HRF ultrasound system, the only diagnostic imaging device currently manifested to fly on ISS. The outcome of a medical contingency may be changed drastically, or an unnecessary evacuation may be prevented, if clinical decisions are supported by timely and objective diagnostic information. In many higher-probability medical scenarios, diagnostic ultrasound is a first-choice modality or provides significant diagnostic information. Accordingly, the Clinical Care Capability Development Project is evaluating the HRF ultrasound system for its utility in relevant clinical siruations on board ISS. For effective management of these ultrasound-supported ISS medical scenarios, the resulting data should be available for viewing and interpretation on the ground, and bidirectional voice communication should be readily available to allow ground experts (sonographers, physicians) to provide guidance to the Crew Medical Officer. It may also be vitally important to have the capability of real-time guidance via video uplink to the CMO-opertor during an exam to facilitate the diagnosis in a timely fashion. Duke, Michael B. and Hoffman, Stephen J. and Snook, Kelly Johnson Space Center NAG9-1447

Lunar Science: A Post-Apollo View: Scientific Results and Insights from the Lunar Samples explains the scientific results and discoveries of the manned Apollo lunar missions as they are understood. The emphasis is less on sample description and data and more on the interpretative aspects of the study, with the aim of providing a coherent story of the evolution of the moon and its origin as revealed by the lunar samples and the Apollo missions. This text has seven chapters; the first of which provides a historical background of efforts to study the moon prior to the Apollo missions, including lunar photogeologic mapping and direct exploration by spacecraft. Attention then turns to the Apollo missions and the lunar samples collected, beginning with Apollo 11 that landed on the moon on July 20, 1969 and followed by more missions. The next chapter describes the geology of the moon, with emphasis on craters, central peaks and peak rings, the large ringed basins, rilles, and maria lava flows. The reader is also introduced to the nature of the lunar surface material, the maria basalts, the highlands, and the moon's interior. This book concludes with a discussion on the evidence that has been gathered by the Apollo missions that offers insights into the origin and evolution of the moon. An epilogue reflects on the usefulness of manned space flight. This book will appeal to lunar scientists as well as to those with an interest in astronomy and space exploration.

In 'Paving the Way for Apollo 11' David Harland explains the lure of the Moon to classical philosophers, astronomers, and geologists, and how NASA set out to investigate the Moon in preparation for a manned lunar landing mission. It focuses particularly on the Lunar Orbiter and Surveyor missions.