Type I hypersensitivity reactions have become a recurring, sometimes fatal, problem in the equine industry, due in part to the practice of annual and semi-annual vaccinations. While hypersensitivity reactions to vaccines are rare, new viral vaccines have caused an increase in the incidence of adverse responses. For example, the equine West Nile virus (WNV) vaccine increased the number and frequency of administered vaccines. One such WNV vaccine was pulled from the market due to reports of adverse responses. [superscript 1,2] Without proper vaccination, horses are at higher risk of potentially preventable disease, which can lead to loss of performance and occasionally loss of life. [superscript 3,4] While there is no current WNV vaccine for humans, there are several vaccines for horses. These vaccines are designed to protect; however, many are causing type I IgE-mediated hypersensitivity allergic responses that include local and severe systemic anaphylaxis. The following review will briefly describe characteristics of West Nile virus, including clinical and pathological responses associated with disease and with protection against disease through vaccination. Herein I present an overview of viral vaccines and vaccine components that may initiate adverse responses, and how adverse immune responses to these components can be modulated. Finally, the review will discuss type I hypersensitivity, its induction, pathogenesis, and components of immune responses. The remaining dissertation depicts the experiments carried out over a 4 year period. Beginning with the study conducted to observe the relationship between T regulatory cells and IgE responses. Followed by the in-vitro CpG oligodeoxynucleotides study, aimed at modulating the immune response to stimulate a shift from a T helper 2 to a T helper 1 response. Finally, the last section depicts the in-vivo study, in which a CpG oligodeoxynucleotide was combined with a West Nile virus vaccine. This in-vivo study was aimed at demonstraiting that the immune response in horses could be modulated to show a shift from a T helper 2 to a T helper 1 response.

In 1900, for every 1,000 babies born in the United States, 100 would die before their first birthday, often due to infectious diseases. Today, vaccines exist for many viral and bacterial diseases. The National Childhood Vaccine Injury Act, passed in 1986, was intended to bolster vaccine research and development through the federal coordination of vaccine initiatives and to provide relief to vaccine manufacturers facing financial burdens. The legislation also intended to address concerns about the safety of vaccines by instituting a compensation program, setting up a passive surveillance system for vaccine adverse events, and by providing information to consumers. A key component of the legislation required the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services to collaborate with the Institute of Medicine to assess concerns about the safety of vaccines and potential adverse events, especially in children. Adverse Effects of Vaccines reviews the epidemiological, clinical, and biological evidence regarding adverse health events associated with specific vaccines covered by the National Vaccine Injury Compensation Program (VICP), including the varicella zoster vaccine, influenza vaccines, the hepatitis B vaccine, and the human papillomavirus vaccine, among others. For each possible adverse event, the report reviews peer-reviewed primary studies, summarizes their findings, and evaluates the epidemiological, clinical, and biological evidence. It finds that while no vaccine is 100 percent safe, very few adverse events are shown to be caused by vaccines. In addition, the evidence shows that vaccines do not cause several conditions. For example, the MMR vaccine is not associated with autism or childhood diabetes. Also, the DTaP vaccine is not associated with diabetes and the influenza vaccine given as a shot does not exacerbate asthma. Adverse Effects of Vaccines will be of special interest to the National Vaccine Program Office, the VICP, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, vaccine safety researchers and manufacturers, parents, caregivers, and health professionals in the private and public sectors.

Parents have come to depend on vaccines to protect their children from a variety of diseases. Some evidence suggests, however, that vaccination against pertussis (whooping cough) and rubella (German measles) is, in a small number of cases, associated with increased risk of serious illness. This book examines the controversy over the evidence and offers a comprehensively documented assessment of the risk of illness following immunization with vaccines against pertussis and rubella. Based on extensive review of the evidence from epidemiologic studies, case histories, studies in animals, and other sources of information, the book examines: The relation of pertussis vaccines to a number of serious adverse events, including encephalopathy and other central nervous system disorders, sudden infant death syndrome, autism, Guillain-Barre syndrome, learning disabilities, and Reye syndrome. The relation of rubella vaccines to arthritis, various neuropathies, and thrombocytopenic purpura. The volume, which includes a description of the committee's methods for evaluating evidence and directions for future research, will be important reading for public health officials, pediatricians, researchers, and concerned parents.

The current state of knowledge on this increasingly important subject is beautifully described in this, the first truly comprehensive text of allergic diseases affecting the major veterinary species. It will be an invaluable guide to students, clinicians and researchers alike. From the Foreword by Professor Richard Halliwell, MS, PhD, VetMB, MRCVS, Dip ACVD Veterinary Allergy is the first comprehensive, high quality reference dealing with all aspects of veterinary allergy in all species and all body systems involved with allergy. Providing solid breadth and excellent depth of coverage, it deals with the immunopathology of the various allergic conditions as well as with clinical presentation, diagnosis and treatment of veterinary allergic diseases. Key features: Broad species coverage, organised by sections on dogs, cats, horses, and other domestic species including large animals, birds and small mammals Provides details on diseases affecting the skin, respiratory tract and gut Contains practical information for clinicians on management of allergic diseases Includes fully-referenced high level detail suitable for specialists and researchers Focused on evidence-based medicine and science The editors have extensive experience and are respected as world-wide experts in the field Every chapter is written by an expert in that particular topic Anyone seeking information and references on any aspect of allergic conditions in any species should find this book helpful. The book will be of interest to clinicians in first opinion practice, specialists in veterinary dermatology, gastroenterology, internal medicine, and immunology as well as specialists-in-training in those fields and veterinary students. The focus on underlying principles and practical clinical aspects is admirable. Immediately useful for practical utilization by practicing clinicians. Dr. Andrew Mackin BSc BVMS MVS DVSc FACVSc DSAM, Diplomate, American College of Veterinary Internal Medicine, Professor and Service Chief, Small Animal Internal Medicine, Dr. Hugh G. Ward Endowed Chair of Small Animal Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Mississippi State University, USA

Equine Clinical Immunology offers comprehensive information on equine immunological disorders. • Provides a complete, equine-specific reference on clinical immunology • Focuses on clinically relevant information for the diagnosis and treatment of horses with immune disorders • Illustrates the concepts discussed using drawings, photographs, and tables • Presents key concepts, clinical assessment information, and treatment approaches in text boxes for ease of use • Offers a practical, clinically oriented approach ideal for equine specialists

The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations has recently estimated that the world equid population exceeds 110 million. Working equids (horses, ponies, donkeys, and mules) remain essential to ensure the livelihood of poor communities around the world. In many developed countries, the equine industry has significant economical weight, with around 7 million horses in Europe alone. The close relationship between humans and equids and the fact that the athlete horse is the terrestrial mammal that travels the most worldwide after humans are important elements to consider in the transmission of pathogens and diseases, amongst equids and to other species. The potential effect of climate change on vector ecology and vector-borne diseases is also of concern for both human and animal health. In this Special Issue, we intend to explore our understanding of a panel of equine viruses, looking at their pathogenicity, their importance in terms of welfare and potential association with diseases, their economic importance and impact on performance, and how their identification can be helped by new technologies and methods.