Proto-colonial archaeology explores the physical origins of the world culture that evolved out of contacts made in the Age of Exploration, from Columbus to Cromwell. The early defended sites show how colonizing Europeans first responded to the challenges of new environments and new peoples, and how their choices led to conquest, adaption, or failure. Fortifications, once necessary to protect the colonies, are now essential clues to understand their history. The first comparative study of proto-colonial fortifications, First Forts is a collection of essays written by leading archaeologists in the field. Meeting the needs of archaeologists and historians around the globe, this book will also appeal to military enthusiasts, preservationists, and students of the Age of Exploration. Contributors are David Orr, Kathleen Deagan, Steven Pendery, Eric Klingelhofer, Nicholas Luccketti, Edward Harris, Roger Leech, Paul Huey, Jay Haviser, Oscar Hefting, Christopher DeCorse, Ranjith Jayasena and Pieter Floore.

At least fifty-six frontier forts once stood in, or within view of, what is now the state of Iowa. The earliest date to the 1680s, while the latest date to the Dakota uprising of 1862. Some were vast compounds housing hundreds of soldiers; others consisted of a few sheds built by a trader along a riverbank. Regardless of their size and function—William Whittaker and his contributors include any compound that was historically called a fort, whether stockaded or not, as well as all military installations—all sought to control and manipulate Indians to the advantage of European and American traders, governments, and settlers. Frontier Forts of Iowa draws extensively upon the archaeological and historical records to document this era of transformation from the seventeenth-century fur trade until almost all Indians had been removed from the region. The earliest European-constructed forts along the Mississippi, Des Moines, and Missouri rivers fostered a complex relationship between Indians and early traders. After the Louisiana Purchase of 1804, American military forts emerged in the Upper Midwest, defending the newly claimed territories from foreign armies, foreign traders, and foreign-supported Indians. After the War of 1812, new forts were built to control Indians until they could be moved out of the way of American settlers; forts of this period, which made extensive use of roads and trails, teamed a military presence with an Indian agent who negotiated treaties and regulated trade. The final phase of fort construction in Iowa occurred in response to the Spirit Lake massacre and the Dakota uprising; the complete removal of the Dakota in 1863 marked the end of frontier forts in a state now almost completely settled by Euro-Americans. By focusing on the archaeological evidence produced by many years of excavations and by supporting their words with a wealth of maps and illustrations, the authors uncover the past and connect it with the real history of real places. In so doing they illuminate the complicated and dramatic history of the Upper Midwest in a time of enormous change. Past is linked to present in the form of a section on visiting original and reconstructed forts today. Contributors: Gayle F. Carlson Jeffrey T. Carr Lance M. Foster Kathryn E. M. Gourley Marshall B. McKusick Cindy L. Nagel David J. Nolan Cynthia L. Peterson Leah D. Rogers Regena Jo Schantz Christopher M. Schoen Vicki L. Twinde-Javner William E. Whittaker

A fascinating, illustrated history of forts and castles from their earliest origins to the 20th century. Ever since humans began to live together in settlements they have felt the need to organise some kind of defence against potentially hostile neighbours. Many of the earliest city states were built as walled towns, and during the medieval era, stone castles were built both as symbols of the defenders' strength and as protection against potential attack. The advent of cannon prompted fortifications to become lower, denser and more complex, and the forts of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries could appear like snowflakes in their complexity and beautiful geometry. Without forts, the history of America could have taken a very different course, pirates could have sailed the seas unchecked, and Britain itself could have been successfully invaded. This book explains the history of human fortifications, and is beautifully illustrated using photographs, plans, drawings and maps to explain why they were built, their various functions and their immense historical legacy in laying the foundations of empire.

A look at military fortifications over the centuries, with photos included. The state of Georgia has a long tradition of building stalwart military fortifications—going all the way back to the early sixteenth century, when it was part of a much larger region of the Southeast claimed by Spain and known as La Florida. After the failure of Lucas Vasquez de Ayllon’s settlement in 1526 on the coast of Georgia, French Huguenots established a small fort at Port Royal Sound and another along the St. Johns River. This book explores the centuries that followed, revealing the history behind Georgia’s many forts. Discover who emerged victorious after Savannah’s Fort Pulaski was bombarded for over thirty hours by Federal troops during the Civil War, and why Fort Oglethorpe was constructed in 1902 within the confines of Chickamauga Park, as military historian and archivist Alejandro de Quesada explores the breadth of Georgia’s forts from the colonial and antebellum eras to the Civil War and modern times.

Owner and Science Director of R & D for Florida Research & Development Laboratory. Has been in business for thirty five years. His business works within the Aquaculture Industry to develop medications and water conditioners for both the marine and freshwater fish hobby as well as the Aquaculture of farmed food fish. The companies expertise thrives on the cutting edge technology and is a strong contributor to the Fish Industry.