Singapore had, by the 1980s, emerged as one of the world's great oil refining and trading centres, with the "e;East of Suez"e; region within its sphere of influence. The city-state's policy-making went against the grain in much of its practice of economic development. It ensured that energy products were bought and sold in the domestic market at essentially global prices, in contrast to the common practice in developing countries of subsidizing energy fuels for social equity. Without a drop of oil of its own, Singapore also managed to attract large foreign investments in the capital-intensive oil refining and petrochemical manufacturing sectors in an export-oriented strategy. This was at a time when governments of most newly independent countries were busy trying to promote heavy industry by protectionist trade policies and import-substituting industrialization. The purpose of this book is two-fold. It is intended to introduce a host of energy-related discussions relevant to a wider group of readers who do not "e;do energy"e; for a living, yet are keenly interested in understanding the many complexities of modern industrial societies which need to balance economic, environmental, and security priorities of ordinary citizens. It is also meant to serve as an introductory assessment of key energy-related issues, with a particular relevance for small advanced countries such as Singapore.

At Copenhagen in December 2009, the international community agreed to limit global warming to below two degrees Celsius to avoid the worst impacts of human-induced climate change. However climate scientists agree that current national emissions targets collectively will still not achieve this goal. Instead, the ‘ambition gap’ between climate science and climate policy is likely to lead to average global warming of around four degrees Celsius by or before 2100. If a ‘Four Degree World’ is the de facto goal of policy, we urgently need to understand what this world might look like. Four Degrees of Global Warming: Australia in a Hot World outlines the expected consequences of this world for Australia and its region. Its contributors include many of Australia’s most eminent and internationally recognized climate scientists, climate policy makers and policy analysts. They provide an accessible, detailed, dramatic, and disturbing examination of the likely impacts of a Four Degree World on Australia’s social, economic and ecological systems. The book offers policy makers, politicians, students, and anyone interested climate change, access to the most recent research on potential Australian impacts of global warming, and possible responses.

Although tackling the causes of climate change through mitigation is necessary, it is also essential to examine the effect of climate change and what international cooperation can take place to ensure global adaptation measures. This pioneering book deals exclusively with the politics of why adaptation as a global responsibility continues to be ignored.

​While significant attention has been devoted to achieving Sustainable Development Goal 13 (SDG 13) and scaling up climate finance for developing countries, the adverse impacts of funded projects on local communities remains inadequately explored by both academics and policymakers. Mobilizing climate finance on an unprecedented scale is undeniably vital for the success of developing countries’ climate policies. However, these initiatives often give rise to adverse consequences for individuals in these countries, leading to displacements, exacerbating food insecurity, or even triggering conflicts over resources. This book examines the extent to which the climate funds established for achieving SDG 13 are adequate for addressing climate change impacts in developing countries. Yet, its analysis transcends the mere evaluation of the sufficiency or efficacy of these efforts found in much of the existing literature. Beyond the scope of quantifiable success, the book delves into the root causes of the adverse impacts that these funds can have on local communities and offers tailored recommendations to realize the noble aspirations of SDG 13, all without implying that the individuals who should benefit from climate finance are the ones who pay in the end.

This book builds on a decade-long experience with mechanisms provided by the Kyoto Protocol and the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change. It discusses the challenges of climate finance in the context of the post-Copenhagen negotiations and provides a long-term outlook of how climate finance in developing countries could develop. Written by climate finance experts from academia, carbon finance businesses and international organisations, the book provides background, firsthand insights, case studies and analysis into the complex subject area of climate finance.