This book is a survey of key issues in the theory of evaluation aimed at exhibiting and clarifying the rational nature of the thought-procedures involved. By means of theoretical analysis and explanatory case studies, this volume shows how evaluation is—or should be—a rational procedure directed at appropriate objectives. Above all, it maintains the objectivity of rational evaluation.

The philosophy of reasoning for the choices we make combines biological, psychological and social factors to provide a values approach. Our values are the basis on our choices across the four realities. It is our values that drive our conflicts and unhappiness across human societies and in our personal relationships which needs to be understood to deliver peace and happiness. Reasoning Our Choices brilliantly elucidates why the Universe and the societies we inhabit is the way it is; it is for everyone to learn and improve our reasoning to find greater harmony within our choices.

Professor Merrie Bergmann presents an accessible introduction to the subject of many-valued and fuzzy logic designed for use on undergraduate and graduate courses in non-classical logic. Bergmann discusses the philosophical issues that give rise to fuzzy logic - problems arising from vague language - and returns to those issues as logical systems are presented. For historical and pedagogical reasons, three-valued logical systems are presented as useful intermediate systems for studying the principles and theory behind fuzzy logic. The major fuzzy logical systems - Lukasiewicz, Gödel, and product logics - are then presented as generalisations of three-valued systems that successfully address the problems of vagueness. A clear presentation of technical concepts, this book includes exercises throughout the text that pose straightforward problems, that ask students to continue proofs begun in the text, and that engage students in the comparison of logical systems.

The present volume of the Handbook of the History of Logic brings together two of the most important developments in 20th century non-classical logic. These are many-valuedness and non-monotonicity. On the one approach, in deference to vagueness, temporal or quantum indeterminacy or reference-failure, sentences that are classically non-bivalent are allowed as inputs and outputs to consequence relations. Many-valued, dialetheic, fuzzy and quantum logics are, among other things, principled attempts to regulate the flow-through of sentences that are neither true nor false. On the second, or non-monotonic, approach, constraints are placed on inputs (and sometimes on outputs) of a classical consequence relation, with a view to producing a notion of consequence that serves in a more realistic way the requirements of real-life inference. Many-valued logics produce an interesting problem. Non-bivalent inputs produce classically valid consequence statements, for any choice of outputs. A major task of many-valued logics of all stripes is to fashion an appropriately non-classical relation of consequence.The chief preoccupation of non-monotonic (and default) logicians is how to constrain inputs and outputs of the consequence relation. In what is called "left non-monotonicity, it is forbidden to add new sentences to the inputs of true consequence-statements. The restriction takes notice of the fact that new information will sometimes override an antecedently (and reasonably) derived consequence. In what is called "right non-monotonicity, limitations are imposed on outputs of the consequence relation. Most notably, perhaps, is the requirement that the rule of or-introduction not be given free sway on outputs. Also prominent is the effort of paraconsistent logicians, both preservationist and dialetheic, to limit the outputs of inconsistent inputs, which in classical contexts are wholly unconstrained.In some instances, our two themes coincide. Dialetheic logics are a case in point. Dialetheic logics allow certain selected sentences to have, as a third truth value, the classical values of truth and falsity together. So such logics also admit classically inconsistent inputs. A central task is to construct a right non-monotonic consequence relation that allows for these many-valued, and inconsistent, inputs.The Many Valued and Non-Monotonic Turn in Logic is an indispensable research tool for anyone interested in the development of logic, including researchers, graduate and senior undergraduate students in logic, history of logic, mathematics, history of mathematics, computer science, AI, linguistics, cognitive science, argumentation theory, and the history of ideas. - Detailed and comprehensive chapters covering the entire range of modal logic. - Contains the latest scholarly discoveries and interprative insights that answers many questions in the field of logic.

Argumentation has traditionally been studied across a number of fields, notably philosophy, cognitive science, linguistics and jurisprudence. The study of computational models of argumentation is a more recent endeavor, bringing together researchers from traditional fields and computer science and engineering within a rich, interdisciplinary matrix. Computational models of argumentation have been identified and used since the 1980s, and more recently an important role for argumentation in leading to principled decisions has emerged in several settings. This book presents the proceedings of COMMA 2022 the 9th International Conference on Computational Models of Argument, held in Cardiff, Wales, United Kingdom, during 14 - 16 September 2022. The book contains 27 regular papers and 16 demo papers from a total of 75 submissions, as well as 3 invited talks from Prof Paul Dunne (University of Liverpool), Prof Iryna Gurevych (TU Darmstadt), and Prof Antonis Kakas (University of Cyprus), which reflect the diverse nature of the field. Papers are a mix of theoretical and practical contributions; theoretical contributions include new formal models, the study of formal or computational properties of models, design for implemented systems and experimental research; practical papers include applications to law, machine learning and explainability. Abstract and structured accounts of argumentation are covered, as are relations between different accounts. Many papers focus on the evaluation of arguments or their conclusions given a body of arguments, with a continuation of a recent trend to study gradual or probabilistic notions of evaluation. The book offers an overview of recent and current research and will be of interest to all those working with computational models of argumentation.

This book constitutes the refereed proceedings of the 8th International Workshop on Deontic Logic in Computer Science, DEON 2006, held in Utrecht, Netherlands in July 2006. Presents 18 revised full papers together with the abstracts of 3 invited talks. The papers are devoted to the relationship between normative concepts and computer science, artificial intelligence, philosophy, organization theory, and law. Special emphasis is placed on artificial normative systems.