In this paper we analyze the changing role of gold in the international monetary system, in particular the persistence of gold holdings by monetary authorities for 20 years following the breakdown of the Brettone Woods system system and the Second Amendment to the Articles of Agreement of the International Monetary Fund which severed the formal link to gold. We stress four points. First, the gold-exchange standard was a recent arrangement that emerged only around 1900 in response to a set of historically-specific factors which also help to account for it smooth operation. How long those factors would have continued to support it will never be known, due to a great war and then a great depression. Second, a system which relied on inelastically supplied precious metal and elastcially suppled foreign exchange to meet the the world economy's demand for reserves was intrinsically fragile, prone to confidence problems, and a transmission belt for policy mistakes. Third, network externalities, statutory restrictions and habit all contributed to the persistence of the practice of holding gold reserves. But the hold of even factors as powerful as these inevitably weakens with time and the effects of their erosion are reinforced by the rise of international capital mobility, which increases the ease of holding other forms of reserves, both unborrowed and borrowed, and by the shift to greater exchange-rate flexibility, which according to our results diminishes the demand for reserves in general. Fourth and finally, network externalities, in conjunction with central bankers' collective sense of responsibility for the stability of the price of what remains an important reserve asset, suggest that the same factors which have long held in place the practice of holding gold reserves, when they come unstuck, may become unstuck all at once.

Essays by leading economists and scholars reflecting on Mundell's broad influence on modern open-economy macroeconomics.

A classic collection of titles from one of the world's greatest financial writers One of the foremost financial writers of his generation, the late Peter Bernstein had the unique ability to synthesize intellectual history and economics with the theory and practice of investment management. Now, with the Peter L. Bernstein Classics Collection e-bundle, you will be able to enjoy some of the most important and critically acclaimed books by this engaging investment writer—Capital Ideas, Against the Gods, The Power of Gold, and Capital Ideas Evolving. Capital Ideas and Capital Ideas Evolving traces the origins of modern Wall Street, from the pioneering work of early scholars and the development of new theories in risk, valuation, and investment returns, to the actual implementation of these theories in the real world of investment management Against the Gods skillfully explores one of the most profound issues of our time—the role of risk in our society—in a non-technical and accessible style The Power of Gold tells the story of how history's most coveted, celebrated, and inglorious asset has inspired romantic myths, daring explorations, and titanic struggles for money and power Engaging and informative, Peter L. Bernstein Classics Collection puts the insights of one of the greatest financial writers of our time at your fingertips.

Why did monetary authorities hold large gold reserves under Bretton Woods (1944–1971) when only the US had to? We argue that gold holdings were driven by institutional memory and persistent habits of central bankers. Countries continued to back currency in circulation with gold reserves, following rules of the pre-WWII gold standard. The longer an institution spent in the gold standard (and the older the policymakers), the stronger the correlation between gold reserves and currency. Since dollars and gold were not perfect substitutes, the Bretton Woods system never worked as expected. Even after radical institutional change, history still shapes the decisions of policymakers.

'Ragnar Nurkse (1907-2007): Classical Development Economics and its Relevance for Today' presents a selection of papers that casts new insight on Nurkse's thought, and discusses his relevance for today.

The book brings together internationally respected specialists from economics, history and political science such as Harold James, Louis Pauly and Kenneth Mouré. First providing a short history of money doctors, the book then goes on to cover such themes as: *the IMF and policy advice *the Russian experience *contemporary money doctors. The book shows that there is still a long way to go before international financial advice develops into something that is truly helpful in the long term.

Focusing on Fritz Machlup, Connell presents the story of the Bellagio Group and its contribution to modern finance. Initiated by Machlup the Bellagio Group was made up of thirty-two non-government academic economists. During the years between 1964 and 1977 the Group met eighteen times and made a series of recommendations for policymakers.