This book systematically creates a general descriptive theory of scientific change that explains the mechanics of changes in both scientific theories and the methods of their assessment. It was once believed that, while scientific theories change through time, their change itself is governed by a fixed method of science. Nowadays we know that there is no such thing as an unchangeable method of science; the criteria employed by scientists in theory evaluation also change through time. But if that is so, how and why do theories and methods change? Are there any general laws that govern this process, or is the choice of theories and methods completely arbitrary and random? Contrary to the widespread opinion, the book argues that scientific change is indeed a law-governed process and that there can be a general descriptive theory of scientific change. It does so by first presenting meta-theoretical issues, divided into chapters on the scope, possibility and assessment of theory of scientific change. It then builds a theory about the general laws that govern the process of scientific change, and goes into detail about the axioms and theorems of the theory.

What distinguishes laws of nature from ordinary facts? What are the "lawmakers": the facts in virtue of which the laws are laws? How can laws be necessary, yet contingent? Lange provocatively argues that laws are distinguished by their necessity, which is grounded in primitive subjunctive facts, while also providing a non-technical and accessible survey of the field.

Scientifically based strategies for enacting successful and enduring change on personal, societal, and global levels, no matter what your background • 2016 Nautilus Silver Award • Shares the stories of people who have changed history, such as Martin Luther King Jr., Ben Franklin, and Gandhi, detailing how they used the 8 laws of change • Based on more than 16 years of scientific and historical research as well as the author’s own experiences during the Civil Rights movement • Explores research in the fields of medicine, neuroscience, biology, and quantum physics to reveal the science of how the 8 laws of change work Inspired by his own powerful experiences during the Civil Rights movement in the 1960s and other social movements in the ’70s, ’80s, and ’90s, Stephan Schwartz spent 16 years researching successful social transformations, uncovering the science and the patterns behind them all. He found that there are three ways to create social change. The first is the advancement of technology and science. The second--change compelled by physical power--is almost always coercive and violent and, for those reasons, not long lasting. The third avenue of change he discovered--the most successful and enduring--is one brought about by something so subtle it is often not taken seriously: small individual choices based on integrity and shared intention. Revealing how the dynamics of change are learnable, Schwartz explains the 8 laws of individual and social behavior that can enable any person or small group--even ordinary people without great wealth, official position, or physical power--to bend the arc of history and create successful lasting transformation. He shares the stories of individuals who have actually changed history, such as Martin Luther King Jr., Benjamin Franklin, Mother Teresa, and Mahatma Gandhi, detailing how they implemented the strategies and tactics of the 8 laws to achieve their success. The author explores research in the fields of medicine, neuroscience, biology, and quantum physics to reveal the science of how these laws of change work. He explains why compassionate and life-affirming changes have the most enduring impact and shows how each of the 8 laws cultivates a sense of “beingness” in the individual, empowering your integrity and connecting you to something greater than yourself--the key to lasting change on the personal, societal, and global levels.

One of the pathways by which the scientific community confirms the validity of a new scientific discovery is by repeating the research that produced it. When a scientific effort fails to independently confirm the computations or results of a previous study, some fear that it may be a symptom of a lack of rigor in science, while others argue that such an observed inconsistency can be an important precursor to new discovery. Concerns about reproducibility and replicability have been expressed in both scientific and popular media. As these concerns came to light, Congress requested that the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine conduct a study to assess the extent of issues related to reproducibility and replicability and to offer recommendations for improving rigor and transparency in scientific research. Reproducibility and Replicability in Science defines reproducibility and replicability and examines the factors that may lead to non-reproducibility and non-replicability in research. Unlike the typical expectation of reproducibility between two computations, expectations about replicability are more nuanced, and in some cases a lack of replicability can aid the process of scientific discovery. This report provides recommendations to researchers, academic institutions, journals, and funders on steps they can take to improve reproducibility and replicability in science.

The Language of Science Education: An Expanded Glossary of Key Terms and Concepts in Science Teaching and Learning is written expressly for science education professionals and students of science education to provide the foundation for a shared vocabulary of the field of science teaching and learning. Science education is a part of education studies but has developed a unique vocabulary that is occasionally at odds with the ways some terms are commonly used both in the field of education and in general conversation. Therefore, understanding the specific way that terms are used within science education is vital for those who wish to understand the existing literature or make contributions to it. The Language of Science Education provides definitions for 100 unique terms, but when considering the related terms that are also defined as they relate to the targeted words, almost 150 words are represented in the book. For instance, “laboratory instruction” is accompanied by definitions for openness, wet lab, dry lab, virtual lab and cookbook lab. Each key term is defined both with a short entry designed to provide immediate access following by a more extensive discussion, with extensive references and examples where appropriate. Experienced readers will recognize the majority of terms included, but the developing discipline of science education demands the consideration of new words. For example, the term blended science is offered as a better descriptor for interdisciplinary science and make a distinction between project-based and problem-based instruction. Even a definition for science education is included. The Language of Science Education is designed as a reference book but many readers may find it useful and enlightening to read it as if it were a series of very short stories.